ࡱ>  #bjbj̵ .צצ&8,G\U""!!!!!!!#&!!"!!:!,!+X^R4! !L%"0U">!Ra'a'!! k:   Aboriginal Education Funding: Whos In Control? By Alex Marshall Abstract A budgeting decision made by a Board of Education in a school district in British Columbia, Canada helped address serious budget shortfalls in the School District but it became the basis of conflict between the school district and the Aboriginal communities. They felt the Board had not honored its commitment to support the Enhancement Agreement, a five year educational plan signed in partnership with Aboriginal communities, to improve Aboriginal student success. The Boards decision to appropriate $44,000 of funding targeted for Aboriginal programs without consulting Aboriginal community representatives retriggered community mistrust of school systems and raised anew concerns about prejudice and racism. This case can be taught as an interrupted case with discussion at the end of Part 1 and then Part 2. Part 1 Aboriginal Education: The Need for Change Since the late 1950s the achievement of Aboriginal students has been a concern of Aboriginal communities, school districts, and the Ministry of Education in British Columbia. Year after year the evidence clearly showed that Aboriginal education needed drastic change if the situation was to improve. Aboriginal student graduation rates were consistently lower by about 40% than non-Aboriginals. The number of Aboriginal students making the transition through grades 10, 11 and 12 were considerably lower than non Aboriginal students. Ministry Foundation Skills Assessments at grades 4 and 7 were also a concern. For example, the number of grade 7 Aboriginal students meeting expectations on performance standards for reading was about 30% lower than non Aboriginal students. Another concern was the number of Aboriginal students categorized as having behavior or learning disabilities. Aboriginal communities were troubled by the fact that too many students were falling through the cracks. Aboriginal culture, language and learning styles were not accommodated in the school environment to the extent they should be. For many years, Aboriginal communities and leaders had been frustrated over the lack of meaningful involvement in their childrens education. This exclusion dated back to the 1876 Indian Act that included assimilation and civilizing the Indians legislation excluding Aboriginal parents from important educational decisions impacting their children. For many years Aboriginal leaders lobbied government to address the issue and effect change. Finally, as a result of recommendations in the 1989 Sullivan Report, (A Legacy for Learners), the result of a Royal Commission on Education, British Columbia instituted Aboriginal Targeted Funding in 1994. This provided additional funding to support programs and services for Aboriginal students with school districts receiving $1014 for each self identified student of Aboriginal ancestry. Programs and services provided must be in three specific areas: Aboriginal language and culture, support services, and any other program approved by the Aboriginal community. School districts are required to consult with Aboriginal communities in the allocation of Targeted Funds. (Appendix 1) After years of collecting data, the Ministry recognized that Targeted Funding alone was not improving Aboriginal student success and that a more comprehensive approach was needed. To this end, the Ministry encouraged school districts to develop an Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement, a five year strategic plan developed in partnership with the Aboriginal communities. (Appendix 2). Initially, participation was voluntary and strongly encouraged and supported by the Ministrys Aboriginal Education Enhancement Branch. But due to the success of the new initiative it became a Ministry mandate that all school districts develop an Enhancement Agreement (EA) by 2005. This deadline was subsequently extended. Hope Springs Eternal Hopes were high, particularly among the Aboriginal communities, that at long last they would see the changes needed to help their children succeed. At the end of the three year EA development process each member of the Aboriginal Education Council wrote a comment explaining what the EA meant to them personally. The comments were included in the EA to capture the mood and significance of this historic moment. Here are some of those comments. We know what we need, what the challenges are and we know what the solutions are. For the first time, in the mainstream education arena, the non-Native society is sitting at the table with us, really listening. For the first time there is a sense of Teaming Collaboration and a sense of Trust Emerging. Our Cultural Identity is being embraced by all. This generation is acknowledging that we need help and in returning to our traditional ceremonies, we are learning that its okay to ask for help. (Aboriginal Parent) I look forward to seeing the positive changes in our children as I have hopes that Aboriginal and non Aboriginal stand side by side equally in the education system. Now the hard part begins, acceptance and seeing the goals through. (Aboriginal Parent Advisory Chair) While the Agreement is important, of equal value to me are the relationships and trust that were built through the process; these are what will turn the Agreement from words into real action.(Secondary School Principal) Participating on the Aboriginal Education Council has been and continues to be an uplifting, heartwarming honor. We have come to understand and appreciate the challenges we all face and our commitment to overcome them better than I had imagined was possible. We are doing a good thing. (School Board Representative) After three years of discussion and consultation with partner groups, the tripartite Enhancement Agreement was ratified by the three signatories in May 2007. A huge celebration to mark the signing was held at a tribal cultural centre. All six Aboriginal community Chiefs or councilors, the Board Chairperson, and a Ministry representative proudly signed their historic agreement. In the spring of 2007, the Aboriginal Education Council, originally formed to guide the development of the Enhancement Agreement, agreed to stay together and become the EA Steering Committee. The committee was expected to make recommendations to the Board of Education and question decisions deemed not in the best interests of Aboriginal Education. Its responsibilities included monitoring the implementation of the EA, determining and recommending resources, and reviewing Targeted Funding allocations submitted by the Targeted Funding committees. The Aboriginal Steering Committee had no formal power or authority, but it was able to exert pressure on the Board and even the Ministry of Education regarding Aboriginal student education. The ability to exert pressure originates from Aboriginal peoples status as sovereign nations. Therefore, when the Aboriginal leaders on the Steering Committee challenges board decisions, it is from the position of government to government negotiation. The Work Begins In June 2007, the Board approved $200,000 of District Core Funding to support the first year of the Enhancement Agreement implementation. District Core Funding comes from a BC Ministry of Education General Operating Grant and is the same for each district. It includes funding for Base Classroom Instruction, Counseling, Program Implementation, Testing and Assessment, and Instructional Support. The Board can allocate these funds at its discretion. A portion of the $200,000 of Board approved District Core Funding was used to hire an Aboriginal Education Administrator in August 2007. The new administrator began the challenging task of implementing the Enhancement Agreement which involved working with Aboriginal and school communities on strategies to achieve the EAs four main goals for Aboriginal students: successful school completion, improving the performance of students with behavioral and learning needs, improving the performance of At Risk students, and improving literacy. Other administrative responsibilities included overseeing the allocation of the $200,000 as well as approximately $500,000 of Targeted Funds. In the first three years of implementation, 2007-2010, Aboriginal community hopes remained high because more teachers were integrating Aboriginal culture into curriculum and classroom activities, the Aboriginal District Administrator was providing effective leadership, and a positive working relationship was developing between schools and Aboriginal communities. The Boards financial support for the EA implementation was a confirmation to the Aboriginal communities that the EA partnership was working. However, things were about to change. Part 2-The Best Laid Schemes Scottish poet Robert Burns said the best laid schemes of mice and men gang aft agley, that is, the best plans often go awry. Thats what happened. All the strategic planning and implementation, initiatives undertaken, relationship and trust building efforts were threatened with derailment as the School Districts Board of Education faced a financial deficit of $216,000, a substantial amount for a small district without much room to maneuver financially. All program administrators, including the Aboriginal Education Administrator, were asked to review a list of options approved for consideration by the School District Finance Committee. One of the options listed for consideration was to use $44,000 of the previous years surplus Targeted Funding to support a half time (.50) Aboriginal Student Success Counselor position. This position was previously funded from $200,000 of district Core Funds approved by the Board to support EA implementation. This option would allow the Board to reduce the amount of EA Core Funding ($200,000) by $44,000, thus reducing the District budget shortfall. The Aboriginal Education Administrator recommended that the Board maintain its $200,000 of District core funding to achieve the EA goals. She also recommended that Aboriginal Education Targeted Funding remain untouched by the Board as had been the past practice. The Aboriginal communities had already met and identified programs and services for the $44,000. The past practice was that the Targeting Funding Committees agreed upon services and drew up service contracts between the School District and Aboriginal communities. These contracts were then reviewed and signed off by the Secretary Treasurer and submitted to the Board as information. Thus, control over Targeted Funding allocations lay with the Targeted Funding committees, which included a School District administrator, school principals, and Aboriginal community representatives, not the Board. Despite her recommendation and without consulting the Aboriginal communities, the Board subsequently appropriated $44,000 of Aboriginal Education Targeted Funding and reduced the Districts Core Funding by $44,000. When Aboriginal representatives on the Targeted Funding Committees heard of the Boards action they were outraged. Old feelings of betrayal, mistrust and being victims of exclusionary practices emerged. One First Nation administrator said, the action was the height of arrogance. He said his community questioned the Boards commitment to the Enhancement Agreement. Resentment was so strong that there was talk among Aboriginal leaders about considering other options for their childrens education. Such options included sending their children to a Band or private school, (the latter really only an option for the one wealthy Nation in the district) or negotiating a Local Education Agreement (LEA). An LEA redirects funding to the Bands or Nations not the school district. Therefore, the locus of financial control would be in the hands of the Aboriginal communities. The largest Band in the northern part of the district, for reasons unrelated to the Targeted Funding issue, is currently negotiating an LEA. Because of the Targeted Funding issue, the Nation in the southern part of the district has considered the possibility of negotiating an LEA. Part of the reason that the First Nation community in the south has not sought an LEA in the past is because of a decades long good relationship with the school district. That relationship is exemplified by parents and students, most of whom say that they like their schools, teachers and principals, yet parents and communities say they do not trust the system. Political and jurisdictional issues within the Nation itself have also discouraged negotiating an LEA. Backlash Why had the Board not anticipated a backlash from the Aboriginal communities? What had gone wrong? Part of the explanation, may lie in the Superintendents recent and mostly unknown decision to change past practices regarding Targeted Funding. In the past, the Targeted Funding contracts developed by the Targeted Funding committees went to the Board as information only. However, about six months prior to the Boards decision on the reallocation of the $44,000 the Superintendent advised that all service contracts for Aboriginal Education must be approved by the Board prior to sign off. With this change, the Targeted Funding committee submitted recommendations rather than contracts to the for consideration and possible ratification. The new practice shifted control over Targeted Funding allocations from the Targeted Funding Committees to the Board. It is important to note that the Aboriginal Targeted Funding Committees were unaware of this change in procedure. The ramifications of this change in practice were not yet clearly understood. This procedural change may not have emerged as a problem but for the significant budget shortfall faced by the District. Nevertheless, what appeared to be the Boards unilateral decision to redirect Targeted funds upset the Aboriginal communities. How significant was the change in practice? Why did the Superintendent make the change, and what did it mean for the Board? The answers to these questions may have their origins in the tripartite Enhancement Agreement. As a signer of the EA the Board had a more clearly defined responsibility for Aboriginal Education. The Boards infusion of an additional $200,000 of EA implementation funds is an example of the Board addressing that responsibility with substantial financial support. If the Boards role was to carefully consider how it spent $200,000 of district Core funding for EA implementation then it would also seem reasonable to give careful consideration to how $500,000 of Targeted Funding was to be spent, hence the change in procedure. With the Board as the ultimate decision maker it was even more important to ensure that consultation with the Aboriginal communities had taken place. Fatal Assumption The Board defended its reallocation of $44,000 assuming that consultation had taken place with the Targeted Funding committees. That assumption was the source of the conflict and confusion. The Board was aware that consultation was required. However, when they made the decision to redirect the Targeted Funds it was not confirmed that the Aboriginal communities had been consulted or agreed to the use of the $44,000. It would seem that there was a lack of clear communication at some point in the administrative process. The Aboriginal community perception, however, was that they had intentionally been excluded from the decision-making process and that the Board felt that it was within their jurisdiction to reallocate the surplus Targeted Funds unilaterally. With the Boards decision to reallocate Targeted Funds the Aboriginal Education Steering Committee faced the first test of its responsibilities. In the first two years of implementation the Aboriginal Education Steering Committee merely reviewed the Targeted Funding Committees recommendations as they were already automatically approved by the Board. On learning that the Board had unilaterally reallocated funds the Steering Committee, which was unaware of the change in Targeted Funding procedure, took action. The Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement Steering Committee Reacts The EA Steering Committee met on October 2009. The meeting agenda included discussion of the Board motion to redirect restricted surplus Aboriginal Targeted Funds. The Board Chairperson was in attendance. In no uncertain terms the Aboriginal representatives took issue with the Boards decision. They told the meeting attendees of the anger and disillusionment expressed in their communities. Once again it seemed they had put their trust in the system and been betrayed. The Aboriginal representatives told the Steering Committee that they themselves had lost credibility in their own communities as a result of the Boards decision. The Board Chairperson responded. He apologized to the Aboriginal people and said that the Board had made a mistake. He expressed regret that the decision had created such negative feelings and affected the relationship between the Board and the Aboriginal communities. He announced that the Board had rescinded the decision to reallocate the Targeted Funds. On behalf of the Board he requested a meeting with the Aboriginal community representatives to have further discussions on the matter. Face to Face: The Aboriginal Representatives meet with the Board, Nov. 25, 2009 The tension in the room was palpable as the Board Vice Chairperson, filling in for the Board chairperson, began the meeting. He reviewed the matter of the $44,000 in relation to the districts severe budget problems. He expressed regret that the consultation process had not been followed adequately and apologized for any negative feelings as a result of the Board decision. Now that the Board had decided to rescind the decision, the meeting would bring all Board members and Aboriginal community members together, face to face, to clear up misunderstandings, present points of view, and rebuild relationships towards the common goal of achieving success for Aboriginal students. Each of the Aboriginal representatives spoke on a common theme. The actions of the Board had created a loss of trust. The loss of trust was more acutely felt because of the historic Enhancement Agreement signed in May, 2007 which highlighted the need for trust and raised hopes for improved relationships between the school district and the Aboriginal communities. In turn, each Aboriginal representative, on behalf of their communities, emphatically opposed taking the $44,000 intended to fund the Aboriginal Success counselor position. They reiterated that district Core Funds should pay for the position. One of the Aboriginal representatives, a councilor from the Nation in the south, suggested that the funding problem originated at the Ministry of Education. He pointed out that inadequate funding for the Ministry mandated Enhancement Agreement had created financial hardships for the school district. It was proposed that a joint delegation of Board members and Aboriginal representatives meet with the Minister of Education regarding funding for the implementation of the Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement. A letter was sent to the Minister of Education requesting a meeting. The Board Chairperson thanked the representatives for their comments and requested that they ask their communities to consider allocating the restricted surplus, or a portion of it, to offset the cost of the Aboriginal Success Counselor. Enhancement Agreement Steering Committee Follows Up on Board Requests The Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement Steering Committee met on January 20, 2010. Three letters, two from the Board Chairperson dated December 9, 2009 and December 18, 2009 respectively, and one from the Superintendent of Schools dated January 12, 2010 were discussed. The first letter referred to the meeting of November 25, 2009 between the Board and the Aboriginal community/EA representatives. In the Board Chairpersons letter of December 9, possible dates for the joint meeting with the Minister of Education were mentioned. A list of the cuts to the school district 2009/10 budget to address the deficit was attached. The Board of Education again asked the Aboriginal EA representatives to consider the possibility of using some of the targeted funds to provide for the services of our Aboriginal Success Counselor for 2009/10 and that any funding that can be contributed to the position would be helpful to us in this time of challenges. A response to the December 9 letter was drafted, approved by the EA Steering Committee and sent to the Board Chairperson. (Appendix 3). The letter stated that the Aboriginal communities would reply in writing to the request to use the Targeted Funding surplus to pay for the Aboriginal Student Success Counselor. The second letter from the Board Chairperson, dated December 18, 2009 invited representatives from the Aboriginal communities to participate in the district budget process. This process involves partner groups such as parents, teachers, teaching support workers through consultation at strategic times from March to November. The third letter dated January 12, 2010 from the Superintendent of Schools to the Minister of Education requested a meeting with the Minister regarding the implementation of recommendations found in our Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement. The meeting with the Minister of Education was arranged for April 22, 2010. Following the January 20 meeting letters from the Aboriginal communities were sent to the Board of Education. Each community respectfully declined to use the Aboriginal surplus Targeted Funds to pay for the .50 Aboriginal Student Success Counselor and gave reasons encapsulated in the following comments: We feel that targeted dollars are for the language and culture of the communities and these needs are great. and, The Nation believes that the programs and services for which the targeted dollars have been allocated through the consultation process are as essential to the success of the Enhancement Agreement as the Board funded Aboriginal Success Counselor. As such, it is not in the best interest of our Aboriginal learners to cut existing and developing programs funded through targeted dollars and reallocate the money. The responses also demonstrated empathy for the Boards financial difficulties, e.g. We made this decision with considerable deliberation and not without empathy for your financial deficit. Aboriginal communities are no strangers to this type of dilemma. and, This decision has not been made without an appreciation of the Boards current fiscal situation. However, the Nation feels that the Board should honor Enhancement Agreement commitments to our Aboriginal students. Following these decisions, and after due consideration, the Board indicated that it would not consider using Targeted Funds for the half time Aboriginal Student Success Counselor. Only Time Will Tell The impact of the ill fated budgeting decision remains to be seen. However, a positive outcome is that the Aboriginal community representatives participated in the Districts budget process on March 10, 2010 and presented their budget recommendations. They asked the Board to make Aboriginal Education a district priority by fully participating and supporting the Enhancement Agreement during the implementation phase and until success is achieved for all Aboriginal students in the school district. They also asked for additional resources from the Board in support of the EA implementation. Another effect of the decision is that the Board has actively asked for information to assist them in gaining more knowledge and understanding of Aboriginal education and specifically the effectiveness of the efforts to improve the achievement of Aboriginal students. The Aboriginal Administrators presentation to the Board on March 10, 2010 and, at a follow up meeting on March 31, 2010, addressed a series of written questions submitted by the Board. A recent change in Ministry funding may renew discussions about the use of Targeted Funding. The Ministry recently increased the per student Targeted Funding allocation which means that the district will receive about $80,000 of additional Targeted Funds. How this unexpected windfall will be used is as yet undecided. Loss of trust and a damaged relationship are still issues in the Aboriginal communities. The old specter of an untrustworthy system has reemerged in Aboriginal conversations but trust and good relationships may slowly rebuild with the appropriate olive branch. As to the future of Aboriginal education, the Enhancement Agreement and the success of Aboriginal students, only time will tell. Appendix 1 Aboriginal Education Programs and Services Aboriginal education programs and services are intended to support the success of Aboriginal students through the implementation of an Enhancement Agreement (EA). This includes strategies and structures which have been identified by the board working with its Aboriginal communities to achieve the goals of the EA. Where an Enhancement Agreement is not yet in place, it is still expected that programs and services are identified through the direct involvement of Aboriginal communities working with the school board to support the success of Aboriginal students. Note: While targeted funds may be used to support an EA, it is important to recognize that the EA is a Board commitment and should not be viewed as the sole responsibility of the Aboriginal education department and limited to targeted funds. An Enhancement Agreement should also be supported through core funding. Students may be claimed for Targeted Funding under one or more of the following three categories of Aboriginal Education Programs and Services: Aboriginal Language and Culture Programs: there must be documentation that students are receiving a program leading to knowledge and understanding of Aboriginal language and/or culture. Aboriginal Support Services: there must be documentation that students are receiving a program intended to assist Aboriginal students to achieve success in school by providing support services. Services should be provided by personnel who are familiar with, and sensitive to, the values, beliefs and needs of the Aboriginal community from which the student comes. Other Approved Aboriginal Programs: there must be documentation that students are receiving a program developed, defined, approved and delivered through a shared decision-making process between the school board and the Aboriginal communities it serves. For a student to be reported as receiving an Aboriginal Education Program and/or Services, all of the following must be met: 1. evidence that the student has self-identified as being of Aboriginal Ancestry (First Nations, status and non status, Mtis, and Inuit); 2. evidence that the parent or guardian of the student has been consulted; 3. evidence that the Aboriginal Education Programs and Services have involved the Aboriginal communities in planning and delivery; 4. evidence that the Aboriginal Education Program is in addition to any other programs and services to which the student is eligible; 5. evidence that the Aboriginal Education Programs and services provide a continuum of substantive learning experiences and/or support services throughout the school year. Notes: Students may be reported in all categories for which they meet the requirements: Aboriginal Education Programs and Services, ESL and Special Education Programs. These support services must be in evidence at the time of the September 30, 2009 claim. As per the K-12 Enhanced Funding for Aboriginal Education policy, Aboriginal Education funds must not replace Special Education funding and must not be used for the delivery of BC First Nations Studies 12 or other base classroom instruction. Generic Aboriginal culture events do not constitute an Aboriginal Education Program. Cultural events may, however, form part of an Aboriginal Education program. Initial lack of consensus with the local Aboriginal communities does not preclude the responsibility of the school board to deliver programs and services for Aboriginal students. The languages and cultures of the First People whose traditional territories are served by the board must be respected. Appendix 2 What is An Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement? An Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement (EA) is a working agreement between a school district, all local Aboriginal communities, and the provincial Ministry of Education. EA's are designed to enhance the educational achievement of Aboriginal students. The EA establishes a collaborative partnership between Aboriginal communities and school districts that involves shared decision-making and setting specific goals to meet the educational needs of Aboriginal students. This includes the integration of Aboriginal perspectives into learning experiences. EAs highlight the importance of academic performance and more importantly, stress the integral nature of Aboriginal traditional culture and languages to Aboriginal student development and success. Fundamental to EAs is the requirement that school districts provide strong programs on the culture of local Aboriginal peoples on whose traditional territories the districts are located. Enhancement Agreements are Intended to continually improve the quality of education achieved by all Aboriginal students. Support strong cooperative, collaborative relationships between Aboriginal communities school districts; Provide Aboriginal communities and districts greater autonomy to find solutions that work for Aboriginal students, the schools and the communities; and Require a high level of respect and trust to function Background British Columbia schools have not been successful in ensuring that Aboriginal students receive a quality education, one that allows these students to succeed in the larger provincial economy while maintaining ties to their culture. Growing recognition of this problem led to the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in 1999: We the undersigned acknowledge that Aboriginal learners are not experiencing school success in British Columbia. We state our intention to work together within the mandates of our respective organizations to improve school success for Aboriginal learners in British Columbia. Memorandum of Signatories include: The Chiefs Action Committee The provincial Minister of Education The federal Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs and The President of the BC Teachers Federation The Memorandum of Understanding led to a framework for the creation of Enhancement Agreements. Through these agreements, new relationships and commitments were made to improve the educational success of Aboriginal students. Appendix 3 January 20, 2010 Board of Education School District Attention: Mr..., Chairperson Dear Mr.. Thank you for your letter of December 9, 2009. The Enhancement Agreement Steering Committee has carefully reviewed the comments, suggestion and the request regarding the use of Targeted Funds and is pleased to respond as follows: The meeting was helpful in gaining a common understanding and acknowledging goals we all have for our Aboriginal learners. The meeting helped address a specific issue, that is, the use of Targeted Funds to pay for the services of the Aboriginal Student Success Counselor. The meeting was valuable in sharing perspectives towards common understandings, however it highlighted the need for further efforts in that regard. It has been suggested that the Board consider further relationship building opportunities with the Aboriginal communities. These opportunities could include meetings with key Aboriginal personnel, discussions, workshops and presentations of mutual interest. Proposed meeting with the Minister of Education The Enhancement Agreement Committee appreciated the opportunity to accompany the Board to meet with the Minister of Education. A united front in addressing the lack of additional funding for EA implementation is crucial. The Minister of Education needs to hear first hand the extent to which lack of funding is a problem. List of cuts to the school district 2009/10 preliminary budget The information provided is helpful in gaining an understanding of the problems faced by the school district in addressing reductions in funding to the district which require cuts to the district budget. Use of some Targeted Funding to provide for the services of the Aboriginal Student Success Counselor At the November 25, 2009 meeting with the Board, the representatives from the Aboriginal communities clearly communicated that their communities were not in favor of using Targeted Funds to pay for the Aboriginal Student Success Counselor. These funds are targeted to ensure the provision of services (according to Ministry guidelines) to Aboriginal students. Targeted Funding provides for an Aboriginal presence in schools (support workers) in support of educational goals, and the empowerment of Aboriginal communities in educational decision-making through consultation. The needs of Aboriginal students are extensive and well documented. Resources are limited and do not meet the needs. The contribution of the school district from district general funds in support of the EA implementation is acknowledged and appreciated, especially in difficult financial times. It is, however, important to maintain this support in these early years of implementation. The EA Steering Committee representatives have taken your request regarding Targeted Funding to the communities for further consideration. Letters in answer to your request will be forthcoming. Yours truly, Enhancement Agreement Steering Committee   Copyright 2010 AV Enduring Legacies Native Cases Initiative. Cases and teaching notes are available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.evergreen.edu/tribal/cases" www.evergreen.edu/tribal/cases. Please use appropriate attribution when using our cases  Alex Marshall is a retired director of instruction in the BC school system. Thanks to Gina Corpuz for her helpful reviews and comments on early drafts of this case.  The word Aboriginal is used because it is inclusive of First Nations, Inuit, and Mtis.     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